Thomas Kuhn Vs Jacques Derrida Essay Example for Free

Thomas Kuhn Vs Jacques Derrida Essay Thomas Samuel Kuhn (1922-1996) name is remembered for his enduring work in the philosophy of Science. Born on 18th July 1922, in Cincinnati, Ohio, United States, his thoughts on the History of Science became most influential doctrine for the scientists. In his most famous book â€Å"The Structure of Scientific Revolutions†, Kuhn brought about the main essence of Scientific Revolutions through the ages. As a graduate student in theoretical physics at Harvard, he conceptualized the evolution of scientific thoughts and studies as periodic revolutions since ages, which he named as â€Å"paradigm shifts†. (Kuhn 1996) Kuhn says that, â€Å"Science is not a steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge. Instead, science is â€Å"a series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions.† (Thomas Kuhn, Online Edition) This implies that aspiring Scientists tend to follow the accepted norms and patterns and act and are trained within these â€Å"Received Beliefs† (Kuhn 1996) but these accepted beliefs tend to undergo through transitional phases. One set of belief takes the place of another set of belief and then scientists come forward with their own assumptions through these set of beliefs. This trend takes the form of revolution, which carries the world forward periodically. In other words, we can see the revolution in the scientific world every now and then. Kuhn’s theory is all about the sociological presumptions of science as seen or perceived by humans. This Paradigm shift is not about just the theories but the perceived beliefs or thought processes that go along with the changes in theory. This paradigm shift or scientific discoveries make its appearance in three phases. The first one is in the pre-scientific phase, whereby scientists have never arrived on any one consensus on any propounded theory. There have been criticism and contradictions resulting in several contrary and incomplete theories, and this leads to second phase which is Normal Science and scientists undergoing discoveries in this phase set their own assumptions right by their own several theories which they call as paradigms and explain their discovery within that paradigm in detail. But here too criticism can crop up and so scientists now give space to their experiments and explain their theory or Paradigm with the help of their experimental evidence. And again if some one comes out with the whole new definition of the theory then new stage of beliefs start. In all the arena of the scientific world, when new takes the place of old bestowing among the aspiring scientist’s new waves of thoughts, this according to Kuhn is paradigm shift. In these complexities of the world we find our-self facing number of paradoxes and complexities of life. On one hand, scientific philosophy has given us new lease of life on other hand philosophers like Jacques Derrida shows us the mirror of the sociological aspects of our daily principles and experiences that we face. Jacques Derrida argues that all human beings have to pass through different experiences according to the time. In other words, time is a big factor for the life experiences that human beings have to face. The experiences that human beings face arise in present time only, which do not have any link to the past. These experiences are a type of events, which are totally different from the experiences felt in the past. But, these experiences do make us remember our past and enable us to make anticipation about the future. And this remembrance about the past due to our experiences in the present and our anticipation for our future take place in continuity and is repeated. In other words whatever sequence of events have taken place now though do not have any connection in the past but there are certain cords or threads that have shades in our past that make our present experiences link to our past. Jacques Derrida is a French philosopher of today who conceptualized the school of deconstruction with a vision that has been applied to literature and linguistic writing and is a historical continuous cultural process of writing leaving the old conventional paradigm and moving into new. Both the Jacques Derrida and Kuhn are contemporary philosophers, two sides of same coin. Both are the philosophers of genre capturing the essence of what makes the true meaning of our lives, and what is basic truth about life. Kuhn, by delving into the history of science gives us the theory of our existence. He believes that whatever in our life if not scientifically proved, then it has no existence and no value. We are caught in the web of the accepted paradigms which keep on changing periodically but whose roots are same. One paradigm gives the way to another paradigm, scientifically yet true and scientists make the discovery on the set paradigm. In Kuhn own words, â€Å"the historian of science may be tempted to exclaim that when paradigms change, the world itself changes with them. Led by a new paradigm, scientists adopt new instruments and look in new places. Even more important, during revolutions scientists see new and different things when looking with familiar instruments in places they have looked before. It is rather as if the professional community had been suddenly transported to another planet where familiar objects are seen in a different light and are joined by unfamiliar ones as well†. (Kuhn 1996) On the other hand, Jacques Derrida is a philosopher of different mood and artistic soul. He too says old paves the wave for new but roots of the new still lies in the old. There are some traces of old in new. According to Helen Cixus, he belongs to â€Å"The Incorruptible† (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2006), the whole new generation of writers whose writings will always remain fresh and enticing for the readers. No other thinker in last 100 years has astounded and had an impact on philosophers, theologians, literary and art critics, psychologists, writers and artists than Jacques Derrida and it is also true about him that no other thinker than him has been greatly misunderstood. Kuhn’s vision was scientific and how science has constructed and deconstructed the world around us since centuries and Jacques Derrida interpreted writers, philosophers and sociologists to bring out the problem of current sociological interests. He gave us entirely new and hidden interpretations of writers from Plato to Joyce. He delves on the fact that from every structure like any literary, psychological, social, economic, political or religious device, which captures within our soul, our experiences of life makes us face the world through the process of â€Å"Exclusion.†(Direk Lawlor 2002) And it is absolutely sure that in the process of newly found creation, there is always something, which is left out. There is some missing cord or missing link, which we never able to make out but they make their appearance felt. Kuhn and Jacques Derrida were philosophers of different dimensions but gave us same reflection of life. Kuhn analyzed the works of scientists and Derrida analyzed the works for writers. He breathes and mourns through the eyes and souls of different writers whereas Kuhn breathes through the heart and soul of scientists and their discoveries that are giving our lives new directions. Derrida writes through the works of other writers that is his voice is a voice of other writers whereas Kuhn reflects the voice of scientific revolution through the ages. Reference List Direk Z. Lawlor L. 2002. Jacques Derrida: Critical Assessments of Leading. Published by Routledge. Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Butler J. 2004. Jacques Derrida. Retrieved on January 12, 2008 from W.W.W: http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n21/butl02_.html Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006. Jacques Derrida. Retrieved on January 12, 2008 from W.W.W: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/derrida/#Inc Thomas Kuhn. Online Edition. Retrieved on January 12, 2008 from W.W.W: http://www.des.emory.edu/mfp/Kuhnsnap.html

Physics of Rifle Recoil :: physics recoil gun guns

Missing figures Recoil, commonly referred to as "kick," occurs as a result of Physical properties at work. However, it is often undesirable because it can be uncomfortable for the shooter and can reduce accuracy. The purpose of this webpage is to discuss the physics involved with rifle recoil in order to address various methods of minimizing it. Rifle recoil is most simply explained by Newton's First and Second Laws of Motion. When a rifle is fired, a force is exerted on the bullet that projects it forward. By Newton's 1st Law, it can be inferred that and opposite force will be imposed on the rifle. From Newton's 2nd Law it can be deduced that this force can cause an acceleration (linear or angular) which results in velocity and therefore kinetic energy. Energy is also transferred into the marksman in the form of work. The total of this energy is called Recoil Energy and can be calculated. When a gun is being held at rest, there are three forces acting on it. The weight of the gun pushes downward, and the shooter's hands exert a normal force upward on the gun as shown in Figure 2 below. The point P represents the point of contact between the stalk and the marksman's shoulder. Image - Torque 2 [Figure 2] When the gun is fired, the bullet is projected forward by a force, and an opposite force (F) pushes backward on the gun. Since the barrel where the force is acting is slightly above the point of contact with the shooter's shoulder, torque is created. The normal forces put on the gun by the shooter's hands momentarily become negligible.* The forces acting on the gun directly after the gun is fired can be simplified as in Figure 3. R is the perpendicular distance between the recoil force and the point P. L is the perpendicular distance between the location of the force due to gravity and the point P. The resulting linear and angular acceleration can be seen in Figure 4. Image - Torque [Figure 3] Image - Torque 3 [Figure 4] The elevation caused by the angular acceleration can decrease accuracy by altering the trajectory of the bullet, and the horizontal acceleration causes a force to be exerted on the shooter's shoulder which can be painful. *This suggestion is not completely accurate because the shooter's grip will put a downward force on the gun when the gun is fired.

Risk Threat Vulnerability

————————————————- Week 2 Laboratory Perform a Qualitative Risk Assessment for an IT Infrastructure Learning Objectives and Outcomes Upon completing this lab, students will be able to: Define the purpose and objectives of an IT risk assessment * Align identified risks, threats, and vulnerabilities to an IT risk assessment that encompasses the seven domains of a typical IT infrastructure * Classify identified risks, threats, and vulnerabilities according to a qualitative risk assessment template * Prioritize classified risks, threats, and vulnerabilities according to the defined qualitative risk assessment scale * Craft an executive summary that addresses the risk assessment findings, risk assessment impact, and recommendations to remediate areas of non-complianceLab #4: Assessment Worksheet Perform a Qualitative Risk Assessment for an IT Infrastructure Overview The following risks, threats, and vulnerabilities were found in an IT infrastructure. Consider the scenario of a Healthcare provider under HIPPA compliance law and what compliance to HIPPA involves. 1. Given the list below, perform a qualitative risk assessment: Determine which typical IT domain is impacted by each risk/threat/vulnerability in the â€Å"Primary Domain Impacted† column. Risk – Threat – VulnerabilityPrimary Domain ImpactedRisk Impact/Factor Unauthorized access from pubic InternetLAN – WANHighUser destroys data in application and deletesLANHigh all files Hacker penetrates your IT infrastructure and gains access to your internal network System / ApplicationsHigh Intra-office employee romance gone badUser DomainLow Fire destroys primary data centerLan DomainHigh Service provider SLA is not achieved System / ApplicationsLow Workstation OS has a known softwareLAN – WANMedium vulnerability Unauthorized access to organization owned User DomainHigh works tations Risk – Threat – VulnerabilityPrimary Domain ImpactedRisk Impact/Factor Loss of production dataLANHighDenial of service attack on organization DMZ and e-mail serverLAN –WANHigh Remote communications from home office LAN server OS has a known software vulnerability User downloads and clicks on an unknown unknown e-mail attachment Workstation browser has software vulnerability Mobile employee needs secure browser access to sales order entry system Service provider has a major network outage Weak ingress/egress traffic filtering degrades performance User inserts CDs and USB hard drives with personal photos, music, and videos on organization owned computers VPN tunneling between remote computer nd ingress/egress router is needed WLAN access points are needed for LAN connectivity within a warehouse Need to prevent eavesdropping on WLAN due to customer privacy data access DoS/DDoS attack from the WAN/Internet 2. Next, for each of the identified risks, threats, and vulnerabilities, prioritize them by listing a â€Å"1†, â€Å"2†, and â€Å"3† next to each risk, threat, vulnerability in the â€Å"Risk Impact/Factor† column. â€Å"1† = Critical, â€Å"2† = Major, â€Å"3† = Minor. Use the following qualitative risk impact/risk factor metrics: â€Å"1† Critical – a risk, threat, or vulnerability that impacts compliance (i. . , privacy law requirement for securing privacy data and implementing proper security controls, etc. ) and places the organization in a position of increased liability â€Å"2†Major – a risk, threat, or vulnerability that impacts the C-I-A of an organization’s intellectual property assets and IT infrastructure â€Å"3†Minor – a risk, threat, or vulnerability that can impact user or employee productivity or availability of the IT infrastructure 3. Craft an executive summary for management using the following 4-paragraph format. The executive summary must address the following topics: * Purpose of the risk assessment & summary of risks, threats, and vulnerabilities found throughout the IT infrastructure * Prioritization of critical, major, minor risk assessment elements * Risk assessment and risk impact summary * Recommendations and next steps Week 2 Lab: Assessment Worksheet Perform a Qualitative Risk Assessment for an IT Infrastructure Overview Answer the following Assessment Worksheet questions pertaining to your qualitative IT risk assessment you performed. Lab Assessment Questions & Answers . What is the goal or objective of an IT risk assessment? 2. Why is it difficult to conduct a qualitative risk assessment for an IT infrastructure? 3. What was your rationale in assigning â€Å"1† risk impact/ risk factor value of â€Å"Critical† for an identified risk, threat, or vulnerability? 4. When you assembled all of the â€Å"1† and â€Å"2† and â€Å"3† risk impact/risk fa ctor values to the identified risks, threats, and vulnerabilities, how did you prioritize the â€Å"1†, â€Å"2†, and â€Å"3† risk elements? What would you say to executive management in regards to your final recommended prioritization?

“Many Scientists Have Concluded That Human Activities Are Acting to Raise Global Temperatures”

Introduction Climatologists (scientists who study climate) have analyzed the global warming that has occurred since the late 1800's. A majority of climatologists have concluded that human activities are responsible for most of the warming. Human activities are throwing our natural greenhouse gas effect out of balance (Norby & Luo, 2004:282). Basically, we are surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere which has kept the temperature on earth just right for centuries (Climate and Society).Just as the glass in a greenhouse holds the suns warmth inside, so the atmosphere traps the suns heat near the earths surface and keeps the earth warm. We call this the natural greenhouse effect because it makes the earth a perfect planet for growing and living things. Because of this blanket, for hundreds of years the earths atmosphere has changed very little. It has kept the right temperature for plants, animal and humans to survive quite comfortably (Norby & Luo, 2004:282). Greenhouse gas ses are both natural and manmade. These gasses are Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and Nitrous Oxide (Miller, 2005:475).This following essay will detail various human activities as well as other forces that are affecting the natural greenhouse gas effect. Furthermore, it will address the issue of global warming as well as outline some of the many consequences of global warming. Global Temperatures The main human activities that contribute to global warming are the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and the clearing of land. Most of the burning occurs in automobiles, in factories, and in electric power plants that provide energy for houses and office buildings (Juery Rohrer, 2007).The burning of fossil fuels creates carbon dioxide, whose chemical formula is CO2. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that slows the escape of heat into space. Trees and other plants remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis, the process they use to produce food(Miller , 2005:475). The clearing of land contributes to the build up of CO2 by reducing the rate at which the gas is removed from the atmosphere or by the decomposition of dead vegetation (Juery Rohrer, 2007) The emissions of CO2 have been dramatically increased within the last 50 years and are still increasing by almost 3% each year, see graph below:Graph 1 (Juery Rohrer, 2007) The carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere where it remains for 100 to 200 years. This leads to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere, which in turn causes the average temperature on Earth to rise (Miller, 2005:475) (see graph on next page). Graph 2 (Juery Rohrer, 2007) A small number of scientists argue that the increase in greenhouse gases has not made a measurable difference in the temperature. They say that natural processes could have caused global warming. Those processes include increases in the energy emitted by the sun (Norby & Luo, 2004:282).But the vast majority of climato logists believe that increases in the sun's energy have contributed only slightly to recent warming. Global Warming Continued global warming could have many damaging effects. It might harm plants and animals that live in the sea. It could also force animals and plants on land to move to new habitats (McCright & Dunlap, 2000:517). Weather patterns could change, causing flooding, drought, and an increase in damaging storms. Global warming could melt enough polar ice to raise the sea level. In certain parts of the world, human disease could spread, and crop yields could decline (McCright & Dunlap, 2000:517) .Some details of the damaging effects include: †¢Harm to ocean life Through global warming, the surface waters of the oceans could become warmer, increasing the stress on ocean ecosystems, such as coral reefs. High water temperatures can cause a damaging process called coral bleaching. When corals bleach, they expel the algae that give them their colour and nourishment. The cor als turn white and, unless the water temperature cools, they die. Added warmth also helps spread diseases that affect sea creatures. †¢Changes of habitat Widespread shifts might occur in the natural habitats of animals and plants.Many species would have difficulty surviving in the regions they now inhabit. For example, many flowering plants will not bloom without a sufficient period of winter cold. And human occupation has altered the landscape in ways that would make new habitats hard to reach or unavailable altogether. †¢Weather damage Extreme weather conditions might become more frequent and therefore more damaging. Changes in rainfall patterns could increase both flooding and drought in some areas. More hurricanes and other tropical storms might occur, and they could become more powerful. †¢Rising sea levelContinued global warming might, over centuries, melt large amounts of ice from a vast sheet that covers most of West Antarctica. As a result, the sea level woul d rise throughout the world. Many coastal areas would experience flooding, erosion, a loss of wetlands, and an entry of seawater into freshwater areas. High sea levels would submerge some coastal cities, small island nations, and other inhabited regions. †¢Threats to human health Tropical diseases, such as malaria and dengue, might spread to larger regions. Longer-lasting and more intense heat waves could cause more deaths and illnesses.Floods and droughts could increase hunger and malnutrition. Conclusion Human activity definitely have had a noticeable and documented effect on the steady rise in global temperatures, but there are also arguably other factors that contribute to overall global warming. Either way the argument should not be about who or what to blame for global warming but rather how to slow it down and repair the damage that is being done. Reference list Juery Rohrer. (2007). Time for change. Retrieved April 12 2010 from http://timeforchange. org/CO2-cause-of-glo bal-warmingMcCright, A,M. , & Dunlap, R,E. (2000). Challeging global warming as a social problem: An alalysis of the conservative movements counter-claim. Journal of Social Problems, 47(4), 500-522. Climate and Society. The earth institute. Retrieved April 12 2010 from http://www. earthinstitute. columbia. edu/about/about. html Miller, G,T,JR. (2005). Living in the Environment, 14th ed, Thomson Brooks/Cole. Norby,R,J. , & Luo, Y. (2004). Evaluating ecosystems responses to rising atmospheric CO2 and global warming in a multi-factor world. New Phytologist, 162(2), 281-293. â€Å"Many Scientists Have Concluded That Human Activities Are Acting to Raise Global Temperatures† Introduction Climatologists (scientists who study climate) have analyzed the global warming that has occurred since the late 1800's. A majority of climatologists have concluded that human activities are responsible for most of the warming. Human activities are throwing our natural greenhouse gas effect out of balance (Norby & Luo, 2004:282). Basically, we are surrounded by a blanket of air called the atmosphere which has kept the temperature on earth just right for centuries (Climate and Society).Just as the glass in a greenhouse holds the suns warmth inside, so the atmosphere traps the suns heat near the earths surface and keeps the earth warm. We call this the natural greenhouse effect because it makes the earth a perfect planet for growing and living things. Because of this blanket, for hundreds of years the earths atmosphere has changed very little. It has kept the right temperature for plants, animal and humans to survive quite comfortably (Norby & Luo, 2004:282). Greenhouse gas ses are both natural and manmade. These gasses are Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) and Nitrous Oxide (Miller, 2005:475).This following essay will detail various human activities as well as other forces that are affecting the natural greenhouse gas effect. Furthermore, it will address the issue of global warming as well as outline some of the many consequences of global warming. Global Temperatures The main human activities that contribute to global warming are the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) and the clearing of land. Most of the burning occurs in automobiles, in factories, and in electric power plants that provide energy for houses and office buildings (Juery Rohrer, 2007).The burning of fossil fuels creates carbon dioxide, whose chemical formula is CO2. CO2 is a greenhouse gas that slows the escape of heat into space. Trees and other plants remove CO2 from the air during photosynthesis, the process they use to produce food(Miller , 2005:475). The clearing of land contributes to the build up of CO2 by reducing the rate at which the gas is removed from the atmosphere or by the decomposition of dead vegetation (Juery Rohrer, 2007) The emissions of CO2 have been dramatically increased within the last 50 years and are still increasing by almost 3% each year, see graph below:Graph 1 (Juery Rohrer, 2007) The carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere where it remains for 100 to 200 years. This leads to an increasing concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere, which in turn causes the average temperature on Earth to rise (Miller, 2005:475) (see graph on next page). Graph 2 (Juery Rohrer, 2007) A small number of scientists argue that the increase in greenhouse gases has not made a measurable difference in the temperature. They say that natural processes could have caused global warming. Those processes include increases in the energy emitted by the sun (Norby & Luo, 2004:282).But the vast majority of climato logists believe that increases in the sun's energy have contributed only slightly to recent warming. Global Warming Continued global warming could have many damaging effects. It might harm plants and animals that live in the sea. It could also force animals and plants on land to move to new habitats (McCright & Dunlap, 2000:517). Weather patterns could change, causing flooding, drought, and an increase in damaging storms. Global warming could melt enough polar ice to raise the sea level. In certain parts of the world, human disease could spread, and crop yields could decline (McCright & Dunlap, 2000:517) .Some details of the damaging effects include: †¢Harm to ocean life Through global warming, the surface waters of the oceans could become warmer, increasing the stress on ocean ecosystems, such as coral reefs. High water temperatures can cause a damaging process called coral bleaching. When corals bleach, they expel the algae that give them their colour and nourishment. The cor als turn white and, unless the water temperature cools, they die. Added warmth also helps spread diseases that affect sea creatures. †¢Changes of habitat Widespread shifts might occur in the natural habitats of animals and plants.Many species would have difficulty surviving in the regions they now inhabit. For example, many flowering plants will not bloom without a sufficient period of winter cold. And human occupation has altered the landscape in ways that would make new habitats hard to reach or unavailable altogether. †¢Weather damage Extreme weather conditions might become more frequent and therefore more damaging. Changes in rainfall patterns could increase both flooding and drought in some areas. More hurricanes and other tropical storms might occur, and they could become more powerful. †¢Rising sea levelContinued global warming might, over centuries, melt large amounts of ice from a vast sheet that covers most of West Antarctica. As a result, the sea level woul d rise throughout the world. Many coastal areas would experience flooding, erosion, a loss of wetlands, and an entry of seawater into freshwater areas. High sea levels would submerge some coastal cities, small island nations, and other inhabited regions. †¢Threats to human health Tropical diseases, such as malaria and dengue, might spread to larger regions. Longer-lasting and more intense heat waves could cause more deaths and illnesses.Floods and droughts could increase hunger and malnutrition. Conclusion Human activity definitely have had a noticeable and documented effect on the steady rise in global temperatures, but there are also arguably other factors that contribute to overall global warming. Either way the argument should not be about who or what to blame for global warming but rather how to slow it down and repair the damage that is being done. Reference list Juery Rohrer. (2007). Time for change. Retrieved April 12 2010 from http://timeforchange. org/CO2-cause-of-glo bal-warmingMcCright, A,M. , & Dunlap, R,E. (2000). Challeging global warming as a social problem: An alalysis of the conservative movements counter-claim. Journal of Social Problems, 47(4), 500-522. Climate and Society. The earth institute. Retrieved April 12 2010 from http://www. earthinstitute. columbia. edu/about/about. html Miller, G,T,JR. (2005). Living in the Environment, 14th ed, Thomson Brooks/Cole. Norby,R,J. , & Luo, Y. (2004). Evaluating ecosystems responses to rising atmospheric CO2 and global warming in a multi-factor world. New Phytologist, 162(2), 281-293.

Locations as Metaphors in The Great Gatsby essays

Locations as Metaphors in The Great Gatsby essays F. Scott's Fitzgerald's novel The Great Gatsby often uses locations as metaphors for the qualities of the characters and for the themes of the novel. This occurs with West Egg and East Egg, where the distance between the two sides represents Gatsby's distance from Daisy, his longing for his dream, and the fact that the dream may not be attainable. West Egg and East Egg also represent the differences in the characters of Gatsby and Daisy, especially communicating that Gatsby's attempts to reinvent himself can only take him so far. The valley of ashes is also important because it contributes to the theme of the novel by showing the result of wealth. The all-seeing eyes of the billboard looking over the valley of ashes also represents that the characters cannot escape judgement. These metaphors all contribute to the theme of how money is not the solution to life, but The first metaphor occurs with West Egg and East Egg, two egg-shaped islands lying opposite each other and separated by a bay. West Egg is the island where Gatsby lives and also the less fashionable of the two islands. While West Egg is less fashionable, it is also the more real of the two islands. This includes that it is the island where the narrator Nick lives in a small rented bungalow. West Egg still has its share of mansions but there is also a sense of reality to the place. In contrast, East Egg is all mansions, with the sense of elite making it the least real of the two islands. The first reason this location is relevant is because it represents Gatsby's physical separation from Daisy and his longing for her. Gatsby lives on West Egg and Daisy lives on East Egg. This makes Gatsby quite close to her, yet he remains separated by the body of water. His longing is captured by the way he gazes across the bay at the green light "that burns all night at the end of your dock" (Fitzgerald 94). Nick ...

Understanding Phosphorous, Boron and Other Semiconductor Materials

Understanding Phosphorous, Boron and Other Semiconductor Materials Introducing Phosphorous The process of doping introduces an atom of another element into the silicon crystal to alter its electrical properties. The dopant has either three or five valence electrons, as opposed to silicons four. Phosphorus atoms, which have five valence electrons, are used for doping n-type silicon (phosphorous provides its fifth, free, electron). A phosphorus atom occupies the same place in the crystal lattice that was occupied formerly by the silicon atom it replaced. Four of its valence electrons take over the bonding responsibilities of the four silicon valence electrons that they replaced. But the fifth valence electron remains free, without bonding responsibilities. When numerous phosphorus atoms are substituted for silicon in a crystal, many free electrons become available. Substituting a phosphorus atom (with five valence electrons) for a silicon atom in a silicon crystal leaves an extra, unbonded electron that is relatively free to move around the crystal. The most common method of doping is to coat the top of a layer of silicon with phosphorus and then heat the surface. This allows the phosphorus atoms to diffuse into the silicon. The temperature is then lowered so that the rate of diffusion drops to zero. Other methods of introducing phosphorus into silicon include gaseous diffusion, a liquid dopant spray-on process, and a technique in which phosphorus ions are driven precisely into the surface of the silicon. Introducing Boron   Of course, n-type silicon cannot form the electric field by itself; its also necessary to have some silicon altered to have the opposite electrical properties. So it’s boron, which has three valence electrons, that’s used for doping p-type silicon. Boron is introduced during silicon processing, where silicon is purified for use in PV devices. When a boron atom assumes a position in the crystal lattice formerly occupied by a silicon atom, there is a bond missing an electron (in other words, an extra hole). Substituting a boron atom (with three valence electrons) for a silicon atom in a silicon crystal leaves a hole (a bond missing an electron) that is relatively free to move around the crystal. Other semiconductor materials. Like silicon, all PV materials must be made into p-type and n-type configurations to create the necessary electric field that characterizes a PV cell. But this is done a number of different ways depending on the characteristics of the material. For example, amorphous silicons unique structure makes an intrinsic layer or â€Å"i layer† necessary. This undoped layer of amorphous silicon fits between the n-type and p-type layers to form what is called a p-i-n design. Polycrystalline thin films like copper indium diselenide (CuInSe2) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) show great promise for PV cells. But these materials cant be simply doped to form n and p layers. Instead, layers of different materials are used to form these layers. For example, a window layer of cadmium sulfide or another similar material is used to provide the extra electrons necessary to make it n-type. CuInSe2 can itself be made p-type, whereas CdTe benefits from a p-type layer made from a material like zinc telluride (ZnTe). Gallium arsenide (GaAs) is similarly modified, usually with indium, phosphorous, or aluminum, to produce a wide range of n- and p-type materials.

Compare the nazi system of governance with that of the United States Research Paper

Compare the nazi system of governance with that of the United States - Research Paper Example Nazi’s system of governance is Fascist, Totalitarian state type, and United States is a republic federal system (executive in nature) (Avery p.133). The two systems of governance (Nazi and United States) have shared and differing characteristics and this research paper will be a comparison between the two systems of governance. Nazis Totalitarianism and Fascism was a system of governance where dictatorship is dominant, and societal resources are monopolized by the state by using tactics like technology, terror and propaganda. The governance within the state was based on hierarchies that were fully dominated by one political party having one single leader. The one party system does penetrate the entire country using provisional and regional organizations. The leader in this type of system or regime focuses in mobilizing and making use of political participation, groups and communities are lead by local or regional leaders who are charismatic in outlining and championing their l eader’s promises and praises (Mullender pp. 178). The system reflects an aspect of extreme Nationalism which aimed at bringing about uniformity of all the German speaking citizens into one single unitary nation. The economy in Nazis system of governance was based on socialism, a form of corporate type of togetherness. The basis of socialism is that no competition is created and nobody suffers as all the wealth, resources were shared publically together. The Nazism system is based on the use of paramilitary institutions, the institution is created and instituted in order to scare, discourage and subdue opposition parties and maintain party supremacy (Rittberger pp.35). Examples of such paramilitaries include: storm troopers, defense corps, and secret state police. The type of governance system is based on massive use of spies and propaganda, and the philosophy of Elitism is also applied in running the state and other institutions. Elitism involves a process where just few soci al groups or individuals are given the power and authority to lead or rule. In United States, a type of republic government is applied with features of a federal system. The federal system is a system of governance where the state as divided the government into three branches and functions. Each of the branch having its own powers or authorities, but all the branches are been provide with checks and balances that ensures a regulation of reign of superiority with the purpose of legislation, execution and judicial functions. In legislation branch is given the responsibility of making federal laws and consists of senate and house of representations. The executive is given is given the job of enforcing and executing laws of the government. The judicial branch is to apply and interpret laws that are presented to them. The country is a republic because the people have been vested authority democratically to elect and recall back their leaders (Shefter pp.48). The republic or federal syste m is based on popular sovereignty which states that the entire whole power of the government lies on the people. The government needs to address the rights and needs of the people. The power and authority is invested on laws and acts provided by the people of the country and they must be adhered to fully. The basis of checks and balances is helpful in federal system so that one of the three branches of government does not become powerful or misuse any power or authority accorded to them (Shefter